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Stjepan Krasić: razlika između inačica

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{{Infookvir svećenik
[[Datoteka:Stjepan Krasić.gif|thumb|Stjepan Krasić, Dubrovnik]]
| ime_svećenika = Stjepan Krasić
'''S T J E P A N   K R A S I Ć'''
| pravo_ime =
| slika = File:Fr Stjepan Krasić.JPG
| slika_širina =
| slika_opis =
| datum_rođenja = 6. listopada 1938.
| mjesto_rođenja = [[Čitluk]], [[Bosna i Hercegovina]]
| datum_smrti =
| mjesto_smrti =
| zaređen_za_svećenika =
| titula = dr. sc.
| djela_u_službi =
| počasti_u_njegovo_ime =
}}
 
=== BIOGRAFSKI  PODACIŽivotopis ===
Stjepan Krasić rodio se 6. listopada 1938. u Čitluku kod Mostara. Otac mu je bio Ivan , majka Luca r. Pervan. Osnovnu je školu pohađao u rodnom mjestu, klasičnu gimnaziju u Bolu na Braču (1950-57). Odsluživši dvogodišnju vojnu obvezu (1958 – 1960), studirao filozofiju na Visokoj Filozofsko-teološkoj školi Dominikanskog reda u Dubrovniku (1960-62), teologiju  na Teološkom fakultetu Sveučilista u Zagrebu (1963-66) postigavši magisterij iz teologije. Studij teologije nastavio 1966-70. na Papinskom sveučilištu Sv. Tome Akvinskoga u Rimu (''Pontificia Studiorum Universitas a S. Thoma Aquinate in Urbe'') postigavši (1970) doktorat povijesnom disertacijom o Dubrovačkoj dominikanskoj kongregaciji (1487-1550). Istovremeno je (1966-68) na Paleografsko-diplomatičkoj školi u Vatikanu diplomirao paleografiju, arhivistiku i diplomatiku.Studij povijesti pohađao na Papinskom sveučilištu Gregoriani (''Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana'') u Rimu iz koje je (10. 10. 1985) doktoriravši disertacijom o dubrovačkom učenjaku i diplomatu Stjepanu Gradiću (1613 - 1683).
 
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Sudionik je mnogih domaćih i inozemnih znanstvenih skupova i inicijator za obilježavanje grobova znamenitih Hrvata koji su djelovali u Italiji dvojezičnim spomen-pločama (na hrvatskomu i talijanskomu). U sklopu te akcije pod pokroviteljstvom Hrvatske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti u Zagrebu obilježeni su grobovi znamenitih ljudi  hrvatskog podrijetla: dana ..... filozofa Franje Petrića (1529-1597) i 27. svibnja 1995. glasovitog liječnika Đure Baglivija (1668-1707) ) u Rimu, čime su prvi put u povijesti na jednom javnom spomeniku bile uklesane riječi na hrvatsk  om jeziku.  Bio je vrlo aktivan član hrvatske zajednice u Rimu i pokretač brojih pothvata i akcija: jedan od inicijatora za nabavu zgrade doma hrvatskih hodočasnika u Rimu, poznatog pod imenom „Domus croata“, koji postoji već 30-ak godina ugošćujući hrvatske hodočasnike iz cijeloga svijeta i član njezine uprave; suosnivač udruge „Comitato pro Croazia“, kasnije prozvanog „Hrvatsko-talijanska udruga“(Associazione italo-croata)  koji i danas postoji, osnovanog na početku domovinskog rata za pružanje pomoći hrvatskim izbjeglicama, prikupljanje humanitarne pomoći, zastupanje i promicanje hrvatske stvari i dr.    
 
=== '''Nagrade i priznanja:''' ===
1. Godišnja nagrada "Slobodne Dalmacije" za g. 1992;
 
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16. Godišnja nagrada 2014. Hrvatskog muzejskog društva za izdavačko-izložbeni projekt  za 2013. godinu za  katalog izložbe “Stjepan Gradić - otac domovine”.
 
=== '''BIO-BIBLIOGRAFSKI Izvori CURRICULUM'''za životopis ===
"Tko je tko u Hrvatskoj / Who is Who in Croatia", Zagreb, Golden Marketing, 1993, str. 370.
 
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16. Godišnja nagrada 2014. Hrvatskog muzejskog društva za izdavačko-izložbeni projekt  za 2013. godinu za  katalog izložbe “Stjepan Gradić - otac domovine”.
 
=== English ===
'''STJEPAN      KRASIĆ'''
 
'''AUTHOR – LIST OF PUBLICATIONS'''
 
Stjepan Krasić is one of the most influential and productive Croatian historians in the past couple of decades. While living and teaching at the university in Rome, he had an opportunity to conduct research in all major Italian and European archives and libraries, allowing him to create a large number of scientific discoveries that not only changed, but revolutionized the existing knowledge in the national and general history. In his scientific research, he analyzes different aspects of social, scientific, cultural and religious movements in the European and general history. The results of this extensive research are published in his 22 prominent books and around 200 different academic articles and papers of a different length. Each of his books intrigues the readers and ignites a great deal of attention from the public. Among them, some papers deserve special attention of the entire scientific world. Let us only mention his scientific study ''Historicity of the “Edict of Milan” of 313 A.D.'' published in 2014 in “Rad” by Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb in which the author proves and supports by many arguments, that the “Edict of Milan” considered as one of the most famous documents in the world history and cited for 1700 years by all historians, never actually existed. In fact, it is a stereotype constantly repeated by the historians for centuries, without any checking. According to the author, quite contrary to the common belief, the emperor Constantine the Great did not issue any documents in Milan in 313, especially not under that name. However, another document - a rescript, was issued by the emperor Licinius in Nicomedia on June 13<sup>th</sup>, 313 on the behalf of the emperor Constantine the Great and himself. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to call it the “Edict of Nicomedia” rather than the “Edict of Milan”.
 
Stjepan Krasić published a number of written works in the field of Croatian cultural history, including the monumental work “Dubrovačka biblioteka” (''Bibliotheca Ragusina in qua Ragusini scriptores eorumque gesta et scripta recensentur'') by the most famous Dubrovnik biographer Serafin M. Cerva – Crijević (1658 – 1759) published by former Yugoslavian, now Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb (1975 – 1980) as one of the most influential Croatian biographies until 20<sup>th</sup> century in which 435 biographies of Dubrovnik writers were included.
 
The next big written work by Stjepan Krasić was the monography about the prominent and versatile Dubrovnik scholar and polymath Stjepan Gradic: ''Stjepan Gradić (1613 – 1683), Život i djelo'' (Zagreb, Yugoslavian Academy of Sciences and Arts, 1987) whose knowledge and expertise included a wide span of different subjects: philosophy, theology, law, history, biographic work, math, physics, optics, astronomy, nautical science, meteorology, the problems associated with the precise measurement of time, etc. Since he was a knowledgeable and educated individual who was an expert in classical antiquity and patristics, many different European publishers, including brothers Jean and Jacques Anisson from Lyon for the publication of „Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum“ have asked for his services. He has maintained particularly strong ties with scholars and writers of the Royal Academy of Swedish Queen Christine in Rome, as well as members of academies of sciences and associations in Florence, Paris, Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Dalmatia and elsewhere sharing his works, knowledge and experiences.
 
Krasić caused a particular scientific sensation with his books ''Pape i hrvatski književni  jezik u XVII. stoljeću'' (Zagreb/Čitluk, Matica Hrvatska, 2004) and ''Počelo je u Rimu, Katolička obnova i normiranje hrvatskog jezika u XVII. st''. (Dubrovnik, Matica hrvatska, 2009), in which he revealed revolutionary understandings about the standardization of Croatian language in as early as the end of 16th century and the beginning of 17th century. After the division caused by protestant religious revolution that for its promotion used native language instead of Latin, Catholic Church wanted to unite Catholic and Orthodox Slavs looking for a replacement for Latin language which could have served as a most suitable language for the publication of church books. In the questionnaire conducted by linguists across Europe, the majority of them chose Croatian (''lingua croatica'') which they called „mother and root“(mater et radix) of the other Slavic languages, the „prettiest and sweetest“, the most commonly spread and the easiest to comprehend by other Slavic groups. Since that language was not standardized until that point in time, linguist Faust Vrančić (1551-1617) created a first Croatian dictionary (''Dictionarium quinque nobilissimarum Europae linguarum''…, Venice 1595), followed by Bartul Kašić (1575-1650) who created the first grammar (''Institutionum'' ''linguae Illyricae libri duo'', Rome 1604), Rajmund Džamanjić (around 1587-1647) who wrote the first orthography (''Nauk za pisati dobro'', Venice 1639). In addition, one of the committees in Rome chose štokavski dialect as the most suitable dialect of the official language. In 1599 in Rome, the academy of “Illyrian“ language was established in which for the first time in the history Croatian language was taught and studied at the university level.
 
Encouraged by the successful results achieved at that institution, Pope Grgur XV. (1621-1623) and Urban VIII. (1623-1644) ordered by decree that Croatian language, along with Latin, classical and colloquial Greek, Hebrew, Caledonian and Arab have to be taught for at least 2 years at the universities established by Popes: Bologna, Padua, Vienna, Ingolstadt, Köln, Louvain, Paris, Toulouse, Valencia, Salamanca and Madrid. This made Croatian language equal to other Biblical languages (Hebrew, Greek and Caledonian) and other world languages (Latin, Arab and Greek). That standardized language had to be used for publishing books for all Slavic, Catholic and Orthodox nations, elevating a language of a relatively small nation to a respectable and honorable language of all Slavs. Over 100 books of different contents were published in that language. The books were used throughout a whole national area between Adriatic and river Drava, overcoming the differences in dialects and strengthening the national consciousness about cultural and political unity of the areas divided between the two empires (Habsburg and Ottoman) and the two republics (Venetian and Dubrovnik) for more than two centuries prior to the reform of Ljudevit Gaj in the 19<sup>th</sup> century. One of the peer reviewers of the book, dr. Antun Česko named it „The Bible of Croatian Language“ because it systematically processes the history of Croatian language in the last 4 and a half centuries using all of the known and newly found sources.
 
Equally important are Krasić's scientific discoveries in the field of history of education. In his monumental book ''Generalno učilište Dominikanskog reda u Zadru ili ‘Universitas Jadertina’ 1396 – 1807'' (Zadar, 1996) composed of exactly 1000 pages, Krasić discovered that the first Croatian university was established in Zadar in 1396. The university had two faculties (Faculty of Philosophy and Faculty of Theology) and it provided the highest academic titles (bachelor and doctoral). The book shaped a new history of Croatian higher education moving it 300 years earlier in time. The discovery had an important scientific and cultural significance for Croatia since it included the country among the advanced European countries that had established universities in as early as 14<sup>th</sup> century. Based on that discovery, the Croatian Parliament, as the highest legislative authority in the country, provided at that time the Faculty of Philosophy in Zadar with the title University. The list of the reviewers, all of whom had compliments about the book, includes Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI and the two presidents of the Republic of Croatia Stjepan Mesić i Ivo Josipović. The summary of the book was published in ''The International Scope of the National Laguage. Croatian as one of six World Languages'', Dubrovnik, Matica hrvatska – Dubrovnik branch, 2011. The most important documents from the history of that university Krasić published in the book titled ''Liber almi Studii Generalis  S. Dominici Iadrae (1684-1790.)''. ''Građa za povijest visokog školstva u Hrvatskoj'' (University of Zadar, 2008), published in two editions (2008 and 2012), including the translation into English. 
 
The newest book written by professor Krasić titled ''Prag i Zadar:  dva europska sveučilišna središta u XIV. stoljeću / Prague and Zadar : two European University Centres in the 14<sup>th</sup> Century.'' Zadar, University of Zadar, 2015 is also devoted to history of education.  It discusses the relations and cooperation between the two Slavic universities that started at the time of their establishment: Prague as the first university in central Europe and Zadar as the first university in southeastern Europe.
 
Within a history of general education or humanistic sciences prof. Krasić analyzed a less known history of the technical science in the book ''Nastanak i razvoj školstva od antike do srednjega vijeka, Zadar (''University of Zadar, 2012.). He noticed an interesting fact about the ancient Greeks. Although the world as we know it today could not be imagined without Greeks, they did not dedicate a lot of their attention to technical disciplines and skills. Rather, their focus was put on theoretic or humanistic disciplines. In addition, he emphasizes that the old Greek world was an urban world with a specific attitude towards physical labor. They placed an emphasis on “noble” skills such as: warfare, politics, philosophy, literature etc., without taking into the account the practical skills and manual work such as crafts, agriculture, fishery, shipbuilding, including even the architecture that was brought to a highest level of perfection, painting, statuary, or world-know pottery in which one could find painted vases with the astonishing shapes and elegance. Although those works of arts with everlasting beauty evoke everyone’s admiration, none of these disciplines were a part of the school curriculum. They were performed by the lower class citizens, craftsmen or gifted individuals whose work was appreciated, but never to the point that they established a technical academy or a school of applied arts. Plato, as well as the majority of Greek philosophers, explained that only those who did not worry about their existence, financially independent or state sponsored could have enjoyed leisure time and pursued wisdom. Those who were forced to work for a living did not enjoy the same fate. Physical labor was performed by slaves and craftsmen (masons, carpenters, weavers, drapers, farmers, barbers, fishermen, merchants, etc.) who learned their skills from their fathers.  This led to Greek having an impressive practical knowledge in different scientific disciplines, especially in mathematics. They were capable of building the magnificent temples, fortified cities and buildings such as the Lighthouse of Alexandria, fast and powerful ships with the multiple rows of paddles known as the best in the Mediterranean. In addition, their art, especially statuary and pottery reached the highest level of quality, which was impossible to do without knowledge of perfect techniques.  Although adding the disciplines such as architecture, statuary, painting, shipbuilding, navigation, surveying etc. to a school curriculum would have brought a tremendous benefit to all, technical skills and mechanics were never portrayed as important enough. Greeks had to turn to private instructors in order to gain the technical skills, or simply gain them through their own personal experience. However, one cannot forget to mention that a couple of individuals did promote the importance of technical skills without which the advancement of the human kind would be impossible. Let us remember Archimedes, his machines and mirrors made in Syracuse, with which he, according to the legend, destroyed and burned enemy ships at an admirable distance. Perhaps the discovery of the ancient sunken ship from the 1<sup>st</sup> century B.C. best portrays the technical skills of the Greeks. The remaining of the sunken ship revealed an instrument that proved the tremendous scientific and technical skills level: one axle moved more than twenty wheels and cogs with needle pointers showing the position of the Sun, Moon and planets, once again proving the extraordinary technical and scientific achievements in that time.
 
Unlike individualistic Greeks who were inclined to speculative thinking, Romans were perhaps too inclined to sacrifice their individualism to collectivism and were more practical. The differences between the two are a result of not only two different characters, but different experiences that the two groups of people had in their process of development. So called “Roman virtue” was nothing else but the old morale of a city whose citizens believed in the power of unity. Rome always promoted the ideal of an empire unity that had to come first, ahead and before of individual interests of its citizens. They never abandoned that ideal, even at times of the greatest state raise, when no outside threat existed.
 
In addition to being great warriors, Romans were excellent eclectics who quickly learned from others and mastered the scientific and technical achievements. Also, they were capable of developing, processing and improving many things. This was especially visible in their art and architecture. Unlike Greeks, they gave particular importance to the interior design of temples showing their understanding of religious art and the attitude towards the individuals as human beings. New building technique which included arches (accepted from Etruscans) and building materials (marble, clay and a special kind of concrete created by mixing lime, volcanic ash, sand and bricks) revolutionized their architecture, which led to the first serious blooming of their architecture in the time of Augustus. Firm and well designed cities with a rational urban planning and well designed sewage system, spacious and beautiful squares, triumphal arches, temples, basilicas, meeting halls, theaters, public gathering places, roads, bridges, palaces, houses, multileveled aqueducts that brought abundance of water to cities from distant places proved the level of the architectural skills.  In order to build those, the architects had to find solutions that exceeded everything known up to then. Their extraordinary architectural buildings and their size, firmness and beauty are one of the best accomplished architectural achievements up to today.
 
Emperors acted as main promoters of the architecture, giving it a whole new meaning while trying to showcase the power of the Empire. The oldest preserved monument Pantheon, built between 27 and 25 years B.C. by general Marcus Agrippa, a friend of Augustus, and reconstructed by Hadrian (120 – 124) was envisioned as the interior devoted to gods. Its massive walls supported by the great marble columns (narrower with the increasing height) carry out a magnificently constructed cupola (height equal to its diameter of 43,3 meters) that holds a 9 meter wide round opening at the top, creating the most admiring area coming from the ancient times and one of the most remarkable masterpieces of human kind.
 
Before the end of 1<sup>st</sup> century, in 72 emperor Vespasian started the construction of the Colosseum, the elliptical arena with three rows of arches and the fourth upper floor, vertical array of Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns making it the largest preserved monument from the ancient Rome. Its dimensions are astonishing: 157 x 188 m, with 45 000 seats. In order to build it, Roman architects had to overcome a number of different structural problems. 5 centuries after the creating of Parthenon the architecture was changed, transforming the exterior to an interior.  
 
The human spirit was transformed as well. Art, politics, philosophy and religion have changed the picture of a man and outer world, which was no longer a collection of disconnected figures and city-states in wars. It became an organically meaningful and connected complex with well organized and effective public administration led by the emperor who held the absolute power. Pantheon became a symbol of the new world, in arts representing Rome just like Parthenon represented Greece. “My intention was to portray this shrine of all gods as a resemblance of globe and sky which holds the seed of the eternal flame containing everything” said Hadrian about his Pantheon.
 
After the migration period and devastation of everything that new „barbarians” found from Greeks and Romans, the people in the Middle Ages (5th to 15th century) had to rebuild everything from the beginning. Since the slavery was abolished and slaves no longer performed physical labor for their owners, new citizens of the European continent had a significantly different attitude towards labor. It was a long, hard and slow process which proved to be fruitful later in the future. The majority of new nations who in the early middle ages ruled over the majority of the European continent were warrior nomads who were in a constant search for a better pasture for their cattle. At the end of the early Middle Ages, they abandoned the nomad lifestyle and intensively started developing the agriculture which provided them with better life standards and helped them to improve technical instruments.  In the 13<sup>th</sup> century in Flanders the first canals and dikes were built, and the invention of windmills allowed for pumping out the water outside of the dike, leaving the wetlands dry (preventing malaria transmitted by wetland mosquitoes). Contrary to that, irrigation allowed for the processing of dry areas in different part of Europe. The most significant accomplishment of that time was a big canal (''naviglio grande)'' in Lombardy constructed at the end of 12th century and at the beginning of the 13<sup>th</sup> century. The size of it (35 000 hectares) allowed for the drain of water sourced from the Lake Maggiore.  At the same time, such canals served as connections between different places. They allowed for the transport of people and heavy cargo, extremely useful when constructing large buildings, palaces, castles and churches.
 
Medieval Europe had to rely on its sources of human power, so it turned to a more efficient use of alternative sources of energy. Many novelties in the use of horse equipment were implemented: horse shoeing with nails, originally found in Byzantine Empire, allowed for a more powerful stronghold increasing the effects while pulling a carriage; the use of saddle allowed for a more efficient use of riding the animals giving the horseman a stronger base while fighting and at the same time turning a horse into a real “war machine”. These changes created the incredible development of feudal cavalry bringing it a new dignity. Another great invention in harnessing was recorded: instead of the pulling equipment used up to that point which was put around the animal’s neck, often times choking them and taking away their strength, new accessories were introduced.  This new equipment was put on horse’s chest or bull horns so that the animals could pull the carriage and plows with more strength. In addition, these changes also allowed for harnessing multiple horses in a row, increasing the overall power of the horse team. All of these changes were found especially useful when heavier cargo had to be transported for the construction of large Romanesque and majestic Gothic cathedrals, castles and other buildings. The sculptures at Laon Cathedral in France perpetuated the use of bulls and new means of transportation in its construction.
 
Many technical novelties were recorded in the land transportation as well. Instead of the two wheel carriages that could transport maximum of 500 kg, new four wheel carriages were built increasing the carrying capacity several times.
 
Although water was used from the very beginnings of a human kind, watermill was a Mediterranean invention created at the beginning of the Christian era. However, the irregularity of sufficient water flows and the abundance of cheap labor by slaves did not call for the development of it. The change in the social relations in Middle Ages and a greater need for the alternative sources of energy transformed the watermill into a real machine.  After the technical invention of transforming the circular movement into vertical, the potter’s wheel operated by the foot was designed, and the watermill had eventually become a machine for cutting, drilling, mintage, grinding of iron ore, creation of paper, etc. The 12<sup>th</sup> century brought the creation of hydraulic saw allowing an easier processing of a wood, drying out the wetlands, cutting down the trees, etc. Paintings from that period, preserved and found in churches, often portray many different technical tools and equipment such as winch and a heavy cargo lift elevating the cargo to big heights. A more efficient use of water led to better techniques of weaving and wool spinning: a weaving loom with a treadle, often discussed in the historic findings from the 12<sup>th</sup> century and a spinning wheel. Wool fabric rolling throughout the whole Europe was made easier with the use of watermills. Mechanical mills used for unraveling of silk occurred in Italy in the 13<sup>th</sup> century and spread to other areas.
 
The origin of windmills is less studied than the origin of the watermills. It seems that they originated from Iran and that their use arrived in Europe with the help of Arabs. Their use started in the 10<sup>th</sup> century in Catalonia, Greek islands and other Mediterranean countries that did not have an abundance of rain, so that the watermills were mostly useless. The end of 12<sup>th</sup> century in Northern France and England recorded the use of windmills as the mills with the wind drive. One of the historic findings includes the tools of a farmer (middle 13<sup>th</sup> century) that were used while driving the mills by wind and water. At the same time, in the northeastern Europe known for the abundance of water and wind, a mill with the horizontal axis was created. The wings of the mills would turn in a direction of the wind, and the mill was set to a high wooden tripod spinning thanks to a special device.
 
The wind was also used in sailing. However, its variation and its power did not favor its use. Throughout the Middle Ages, shipbuilders tried to find a compromise between the rowing ships and sailing vessels, leading to a creation of a new type of a ship – galley that used both sources of power: wind and paddles. It seems as galley was first introduced and used in the Byzantine Empire. However, the Italian shipbuilders were constantly working on its improvements making it the best ship of the Mediterranean in the 18<sup>th</sup> century.
 
The situation in northern Europe was different. Scandinavians have developed a special type of a bigger sailing ship called the Viking ship which had an angularly shaped keel that was unknown to the Mediterranean where ships had a flat bottom. It is believed that Erik the Red sailed with a Viking ship in as early as 10<sup>th</sup> century when he discovered Grenland and came to the coast of North America. With time, the styles merged and resulted in the construction of well known Hanseatic, Basque and Portuguese ships. Bigger ships were built and instead of a quarter-rudder that had a shape of a paddle, a stern-mounted rudder attached to the back part of the keel easily navigated by a rudder arm was used, making the navigation easier, faster and safer. The oldest display of such rudder was portrayed at one of the paintings from 1180. Instead of a square rig, a new type (triangular “Latin” rig) that rose better towards the wind, was introduced in the late classical era.
 
The invention of the astrolabe revolutionized the maritime navigation. The use of an astrolabe as the main navigational instrument allowed for the measurement of the height of planets and the stars. In addition, it was used for solving problems relating to astronomy. It remained in use all the way until 18<sup>th</sup> century when the sextant was invented. An Englishman Alexander Neckam (1157- 1217) described the use of magnetic needle originating from China, which along with the more accurate nautical charts, allowed European ships to sail not only during a specific time of the year, but throughout a whole year. Additionally, the ships were no longer limited to a coastal navigation, but they could sail through the open seas as well. By the end of the 15<sup>th</sup> century and the beginning of 16<sup>th</sup> century, Europe possessed the sailing techniques and ships to reach any destination in the world, which resulted in the increase of trade, transport, travel and big geographical discoveries that had a tremendous role in not only European, but the world history as well.
 
In addition to these discoveries, the development of metallurgy in the 12<sup>th</sup> and 13<sup>th</sup> century played an important role. While processing the ore that contained silver, an instrument called bellows was used. The bellows were stretched between the two handles and when used, they raised the flame. It was due to the invention of bellows that many blacksmith shops were opened, where blacksmiths processed the iron and created armors. Chain mail that originated from Persia and the times of Sassanid dynasty spread throughout Europe across Byzantium Empire and the Arab world. The improvement of the techniques of casting bronze used for the creating of church bells led to a production of the first firearms. Soon after, the demand for production of firearms increased tremendously.  In 1294 English Franciscan Roger Bacon described the use of gunpowder originating from China and set the ground for the production and use of the firearms. Its first known use was recorded in 1346 in The Hundred’s Year War between England and France, at first in heavy artillery, and later on in 1450 in a personal, military weapon in a form of a gun.
 
The construction of many churches resulted in the development of the glass industry. The increased demand in the 12<sup>th</sup> and 13<sup>th</sup> century led to the openings of many glass shops that produced painted glass (vitrail). The center of production was located in Venice, from there spreading throughout the rest of Europe. The abovementioned Roger Bacon in addition to describing the use of firearms in 1294, left the description of eye glasses as the revolutionary tool for the correction of the eyesight. This was extremely important invention since it allowed many monks to work on rewriting the manuscripts at night, and many scholars to prolong their research and writing, even at the older age when their eyesight was weakened. In 1300 the Venetian glass makers’ guild created regulations for the production of eyeglasses with the convex glass. In addition, glass became a tool of the scientific research.
 
Up to that time in history, wood, stone and iron were the main building materials. An overuse of the wood as a constructing material was dangerous since many private family houses and public buildings such as churches, castles and palaces were easily destroyed in frequent fires. For that reason, the use of stone increased. The intensity of the construction is best shown in one of the records about the creation of Cheshire abbey in England. In only three years of its construction (1278 – 1281), 35 448 carets of stones totaling 35 000 tones were transported from the quarry located 8 km away, describing the strong development of the architecture in the 12<sup>th</sup> and 13<sup>th</sup> century. 
 
In 13<sup>th</sup> century, the extraction and processing of iron ore intensified. In southern Europe “Spanish”, Basque iron was the most wanted. In 1923 Castilian customs office recorded the export of around 5 000 tones. In Lombardy, the records show a large activity in the production of armors and weapons that were exported. In northern Europe, the Swedish iron had a significantly high price, but its trade was controlled by German Hansa. At the same time, in Germany and Hungary, iron ore and copper were extracted and traded. The receipts from the construction of cathedral in the French town Autun (1294 – 1295) showed that 10% of total cost of the construction accounted for iron.   
 
In 12th and 13th century, the demand for lead and salt (for salting the meat and fish) also increased. This led to the opening of many salt mines in northern Europe and sea salt mines in the southern Europe, calling for the improvement of the techniques of its extraction.
 
In 1445 German Johannes Gutenberg created a printing method of movable type, in today’s world known as printing, which revolutionized the expansion of knowledge and culture, making them closer to the general public. Without that invention our knowledge, especially about the Ancient times, would have been much smaller. All of these changes proved that Europe came out of the cultural and scientific recession that started after the migration period. Europe started taking a leading role in the world which lasted all the way until the two World Wars in the 20<sup>th</sup> century.                     
 
Art also recorded tremendous steps forward in the Middle Ages, especially in the field of church architecture in 11<sup>th</sup> and 12<sup>th</sup> century. The churched were envisioned as “a giant and dominant building in an open space” that did not compare to anything similar in the antiquity. They usually consisted of a couple of naves (three or even five) divided by the beautiful columns and chapels placed in the choir area allowing the people coming to the church, often from distant places, to roam between the altars dedicated to different saints. The central nave usually had a barrel-vault ceiling supported by the arcades and lower, side naves (aisles) that had a ceiling in a shape of a cross giving the aisles its balance. The interior had dim lights coming through narrow windows, allowing the people in the church to concentrate while praying. The outer appearance of the church was simple and harmonious, with the horizontal lines, usually decorated with a church bell pointing upwards   as a "lighthouse".  This was characteristic of Romanesque, a new architectural style that was used in the number of beautiful churches across Europe.
 
Architectural technique which recorded many outstanding results in beautiful buildings, started to set more complex challenges relating to statics and bearing capacities of the entire construction. Architects realized that in order to build taller buildings they had to invent new construction techniques capable of bearing the increasing weight of the building; it was not sufficient to simply enlarge the bearing points and make them stronger. As a result, they abandoned the Romanesque style and adopted a new style with the pointed arches that represented the real revolution in the architecture. That was the birth of the Gothic style in the northwest France (Îlle-de-France). Instead of the heavy Romanesque buildings with wide, horizontally oriented bearing walls and semicircular ceilings and arches, taller buildings with multiple naves containing slim columns were built. Slim arches connected at the top carried the majority of the weight, placing an emphasis on the vertical structure and its elegance. Gothic style allowed for a great bearing capacity of the large buildings, cupolas, and vast public spaces capable of accommodating a large number of people.
 
This new architectural style probably led to a deeper analysis and study of the weight. New majestic Gothic cathedrals, castles of the nobility, city halls, palaces, monasteries, hospices, bridges and other public buildings that defied gravity caused nothing but the admiration in the eyes of the observers. Let us only remember the well known Chartres cathedral in France, a master piece of late Gothic that represents a sort of a miracle of the mediaeval architecture and the impressive piece of art of the Western Europe. It was constructed in 1140, with a 105 meters high spire. At that time, that was all new and never seen before. Perhaps never in the history did the architecture record so many technical innovations.
 
Similar innovations were introduced in the military architecture, especially after the firearm was discovered. Massive towers with deep ditches filled with water were constructed in as early as 11<sup>th</sup> century. From 14<sup>th</sup> and 15<sup>th</sup> century they were built without a blind spot in which a defender would be protected from the enemy fire, at the same time allowing him to defend any place from different locations. Their round shape and a leaning slope reduced the power of the enemy hits. In addition, many narrow vertical windows (loopholes) were constructed through which the defenders could easily watch the surrounding areas. All of these inventions resulted in a strong, active defense that kept the enemy at safe distance.
 
In relation to Gothic architecture, the use of mechanical clocks run by gravity with a help of hanging weights started in the first half of the 14<sup>th</sup> century. The clocks placed at tall church and city towers counted out the hours and minutes, setting the life rhythm for the citizens who could organize their lives accordingly. 
 
If the beginning of the Middle Ages in central and western Europe was characterized by destroying everything, especially the school system, the later period was dedicated to reconstruction, and the late Middle Ages brought many valuable inventions. During that period, the university was brought into existence as one of the most precious creations of a mankind, as an effort to rise from the ruins caused by nothing more than the unfortunate historic circumstances. Although antiquity left us with many basic skills, the Middle Ages had to search for them and work hard in order to rediscover them. In addition, those skills had to be transferred to future generations that had an obligation to further develop them and enrich them with new discoveries. The right to education became a common entitlement that changed the world not only in the cultural and scientific sense, but in social sense as well. That achievement changed the perception of the Middle Ages as the “dark” period more than any other invention in the history of a human kind. School brought more light to societies and the understanding of the world than one could imagine. Among many other things, schools contributed to a rapid change of society that was divided into social classes, decreasing the differences between them. Knowledge, rather than the ancestry, origin and birth, became the most important human characteristic seen as something that benefits or could benefit everyone. Even before the French Revolution, the “nobility by birth and blood” was replaced by the “nobility by book and knowledge” that perhaps more than anything else marks, unites and connects the world today. 
 
Of course, even though Europe has every right to be proud of its development made in the Middle Ages, it should never forget a set of complex factors that made it possible.  Everything always comes from something. In one way or another, each generation owes its success to the previous one, while at the same time is obliged to leave the world a better place for the future ones. If it’s true that Europe and the rest of the world received the university as the highest award for its development, well programmed and institutionalized knowledge, we should never forget that without ancient Greece and Rome, without a humble work of anonymous monks who transferred their knowledge into manuscripts while quietly working in their modest rooms, and without ''Boethius, Cassiodorus or Alcuin, just to name a few, we would never have the knowledge that we have today.''
 
Therefore, through learning liberal arts, people of the Middle Ages realized the importance and benefits that the use of mechanical and technical skills brought to all spheres of life. They did not try to eliminate one or another, quite contrary; they combined both fields. That led to a synthesis of theory and practice, action and contemplation, mental and physical labor, making Europe (that had to rebuild itself after the migration period) the leading continent in the world in the fields of science and technical skills. Gothic sculptures placed on many mediaeval cathedrals serve as an example of the dialogue between the contemplation and action, and the liberal arts and mechanical skills. 
 
Prof. Krasić’s book on history of education was graded with the highest possible grade by the scientific critics, and its translation to different language is currently being negotiated with a number of publishers.
 
In addition to this book, prof. Krasić published a synthetic review of the creation and the development of technical skills and science in Europe titled ''Humanistic and Technical Education in Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' published in the Scientific Book, Vol. 12 (Danube Adria Association for Automation & Manufacturing) in Vienna, 2013, pp. 1-51. In his conclusion he explains that the theory and practice
 
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